Legal corpus: the complete U.S. Code (59,740 sections, all 53 titles)

Ingested titles 12–51 and 54 from OLRC USLM XML @119-100 (the whole Code
now, uniform edition; Title 53 is reserved/empty). LegalText 11,221 ->
59,740; repo total 105,704 records. Deterministic (byte-identical rerun,
verified on Title 42's 8,356 sections); make check green. make
legal-us-code default now covers every title.

Co-Authored-By: Claude Opus 4.8 <noreply@anthropic.com>

legal/us/code/title-17/chapter-4/section-402.md

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+---
+type: "LegalText"
+title: "17 U.S.C. § 402"
+description: "Notice of copyright: Phonorecords of sound recordings"
+jurisdiction: "us"
+corpus: "united_states_code"
+kind: "code_section"
+title_number: 17
+title_name: "COPYRIGHTS"
+chapter_number: "4"
+chapter_name: "COPYRIGHT NOTICE, DEPOSIT, AND REGISTRATION"
+section: "402"
+citation: "17 U.S.C. § 402"
+status: "current"
+release_point: "119-100"
+release_date: "2026-06-26"
+source: "official"
+source_url: "https://uscode.house.gov/download/releasepoints/us/pl/119/100/xml_usc17@119-100.zip"
+source_identifier: "/us/usc/t17/s402"
+source_file: "data/legal/raw/us/code/title-17/usc17.xml"
+source_hash: "0a186a0c7dabe8c6dadfbdd164c54dbe338b00a466ef872135fa371151f92ba6"
+raw_snapshot_hash: "53c244d73050c7c92329dce6d1ccd78b9e2fece359d919b044b600b95258446c"
+text_hash: "0fb16bd060bcfadff2a21a3d9336e469e8d8a097ba47be1bb5c1033ded4f07c1"
+retrieved_at: "2026-07-04"
+confidence: "official"
+tags: ["legal", "us-code"]
+---
+
+# 17 U.S.C. § 402 - Notice of copyright: Phonorecords of sound recordings
+
+## Text
+
+(a) General Provisions.— Whenever a sound recording protected under this title is published in the United States or elsewhere by authority of the copyright owner, a notice of copyright as provided by this section may be placed on publicly distributed phonorecords of the sound recording.
+
+(b) Form of Notice.— If a notice appears on the phonorecords, it shall consist of the following three elements:
+
+(1) the symbol ℗ (the letter P in a circle); and
+
+(2) the year of first publication of the sound recording; and
+
+(3) the name of the owner of copyright in the sound recording, or an abbreviation by which the name can be recognized, or a generally known alternative designation of the owner; if the producer of the sound recording is named on the phonorecord labels or containers, and if no other name appears in conjunction with the notice, the producer’s name shall be considered a part of the notice.
+
+(c) Position of Notice.— The notice shall be placed on the surface of the phonorecord, or on the phonorecord label or container, in such manner and location as to give reasonable notice of the claim of copyright.
+
+(d) Evidentiary Weight of Notice.— If a notice of copyright in the form and position specified by this section appears on the published phonorecord or phonorecords to which a defendant in a copyright infringement suit had access, then no weight shall be given to such a defendant’s interposition of a defense based on innocent infringement in mitigation of actual or statutory damages, except as provided in the last sentence of section 504(c)(2).
+
+(Pub. L. 94–553, title I, § 101, Oct. 19, 1976, 90 Stat. 2577; Pub. L. 100–568, § 7(b), Oct. 31, 1988, 102 Stat. 2857.)
+
+## Notes
+
+Historical and Revision Notes
+
+house report no. 94–1476A special notice requirement, applicable only to the subject matter of sound recordings, is established by section 402. Since the bill protects sound recordings as separate works, independent of protection for any literary or musical works embodied in them, there would be a likelihood of confusion if the same notice requirements applied to sound recordings and to the works they incorporate. Like the present law, therefore, section 402 thus sets forth requirements for a notice to appear on the “phonorecords” of “sound recordings” that are different from the notice requirements established by section 401 for the “copies” of all other types of copyrightable works. Since “phonorecords” are not “copies,” there is no need to place a section 401 notice on “phonorecords” to protect the literary or musical works embodied in the records. In general, the form of the notice specified by section 402(b) consists of the symbol “℗”; the year of first publication of the sound recording; and the name of the copyright owner or an admissible variant. Where the record producer’s name appears on the record label, album, sleeve, jacket, or other container, it will be considered a part of the notice if no other name appears in conjunction with it. Under subsection (c), the notice for a copyrighted sound recording may be affixed to the surface, label, or container of the phonorecord “in such manner and location as to give reasonable notice of the claim of copyright.” There are at least three reasons for prescribing use of the symbol “℗” rather than “©” in the notice to appear on phonorecords of sound recordings. Aside from the need to avoid confusion between claims to copyright in the sound recording and in the musical or literary work embodied in it, there is also a necessity for distinguishing between copyright claims in the sound recording and in the printed text or art work appearing on the record label, album cover, liner notes, et cetera. The symbol “©” has also been adopted as the international symbol for the protection of sound recordings by the “Phonograms Convention” (the Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorized Duplication of Their Phonograms, done at Geneva October 29, 1971), to which the United States is a party.
+
+Editorial Notes
+
+Amendments1988—Subsec. (a). Pub. L. 100–568, § 7(b)(1), (2), substituted “General provisions” for “General requirement” in heading, and “may be placed on” for “shall be placed on all” in text. Subsec. (b). Pub. L. 100–568, § 7(b)(3), substituted “If a notice appears on the phonorecords, it” for “The notice appearing on the phonorecords”. Subsec. (d). Pub. L. 100–568, § 7(b)(4), added subsec. (d).
+
+Statutory Notes and Related Subsidiaries
+
+Effective Date of 1988 AmendmentAmendment by Pub. L. 100–568 effective Mar. 1, 1989, with any cause of action arising under this title before such date being governed by provisions in effect when cause of action arose, see section 13 of Pub. L. 100–568, set out as a note under section 101 of this title.

legal/us/code/title-17/chapter-4/section-403.md

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+---
+type: "LegalText"
+title: "17 U.S.C. § 403"
+description: "Notice of copyright: Publications incorporating United States Government works"
+jurisdiction: "us"
+corpus: "united_states_code"
+kind: "code_section"
+title_number: 17
+title_name: "COPYRIGHTS"
+chapter_number: "4"
+chapter_name: "COPYRIGHT NOTICE, DEPOSIT, AND REGISTRATION"
+section: "403"
+citation: "17 U.S.C. § 403"
+status: "current"
+release_point: "119-100"
+release_date: "2026-06-26"
+source: "official"
+source_url: "https://uscode.house.gov/download/releasepoints/us/pl/119/100/xml_usc17@119-100.zip"
+source_identifier: "/us/usc/t17/s403"
+source_file: "data/legal/raw/us/code/title-17/usc17.xml"
+source_hash: "2ece5fe2929ba67e033fcfabadaf90c74a5fabf20aba5e390def3172db6325fa"
+raw_snapshot_hash: "53c244d73050c7c92329dce6d1ccd78b9e2fece359d919b044b600b95258446c"
+text_hash: "d477611bf314126503a91af9f749c0c5fb7e8cbc22fcfbb896fdca532a368437"
+retrieved_at: "2026-07-04"
+confidence: "official"
+tags: ["legal", "us-code"]
+---
+
+# 17 U.S.C. § 403 - Notice of copyright: Publications incorporating United States Government works
+
+## Text
+
+Sections 401(d) and 402(d) shall not apply to a work published in copies or phonorecords consisting predominantly of one or more works of the United States Government unless the notice of copyright appearing on the published copies or phonorecords to which a defendant in the copyright infringement suit had access includes a statement identifying, either affirmatively or negatively, those portions of the copies or phonorecords embodying any work or works protected under this title.
+
+(Pub. L. 94–553, title I, § 101, Oct. 19, 1976, 90 Stat. 2577; Pub. L. 100–568, § 7(c), Oct. 31, 1988, 102 Stat. 2858.)
+
+## Notes
+
+Historical and Revision Notes
+
+house report no. 94–1476Section 403 is aimed at a publishing practice that, while technically justified under the present law, has been the object of considerable criticism. In cases where a Government work is published or republished commercially, it has frequently been the practice to add some “new matter” in the form of an introduction, editing, illustrations, etc., and to include a general copyright notice in the name of the commercial publisher. This in no way suggests to the public that the bulk of the work is uncopyrightable and therefore free for use. To make the notice meaningful rather than misleading, section 403 requires that, when the copies or phonorecords consist “preponderantly of one or more works of the United States Government,” the copyright notice (if any) identify those parts of the work in which copyright is claimed. A failure to meet this requirement would be treated as an omission of the notice, subject to the provisions of section 405.
+
+Editorial Notes
+
+Amendments1988—Pub. L. 100–568 amended section generally. Prior to amendment, section read as follows: “Whenever a work is published in copies or phonorecords consisting preponderantly of one or more works of the United States Government, the notice of copyright provided by sections 401 or 402 shall also include a statement identifying, either affirmatively or negatively, those portions of the copies or phonorecords embodying any work or works protected under this title.”
+
+Statutory Notes and Related Subsidiaries
+
+Effective Date of 1988 AmendmentAmendment by Pub. L. 100–568 effective Mar. 1, 1989, with any cause of action arising under this title before such date being governed by provisions in effect when cause of action arose, see section 13 of Pub. L. 100–568, set out as a note under section 101 of this title.

legal/us/code/title-17/chapter-4/section-404.md

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+---
+type: "LegalText"
+title: "17 U.S.C. § 404"
+description: "Notice of copyright: Contributions to collective works"
+jurisdiction: "us"
+corpus: "united_states_code"
+kind: "code_section"
+title_number: 17
+title_name: "COPYRIGHTS"
+chapter_number: "4"
+chapter_name: "COPYRIGHT NOTICE, DEPOSIT, AND REGISTRATION"
+section: "404"
+citation: "17 U.S.C. § 404"
+status: "current"
+release_point: "119-100"
+release_date: "2026-06-26"
+source: "official"
+source_url: "https://uscode.house.gov/download/releasepoints/us/pl/119/100/xml_usc17@119-100.zip"
+source_identifier: "/us/usc/t17/s404"
+source_file: "data/legal/raw/us/code/title-17/usc17.xml"
+source_hash: "991640208250f18656f83ada9df8de8b38862d4e54081c943e4a6a8118890ada"
+raw_snapshot_hash: "53c244d73050c7c92329dce6d1ccd78b9e2fece359d919b044b600b95258446c"
+text_hash: "26b9551253cac9e5588977c9081432a2f83e9c8732f9f78f961a9786b5a6d074"
+retrieved_at: "2026-07-04"
+confidence: "official"
+tags: ["legal", "us-code"]
+---
+
+# 17 U.S.C. § 404 - Notice of copyright: Contributions to collective works
+
+## Text
+
+(a) A separate contribution to a collective work may bear its own notice of copyright, as provided by sections 401 through 403. However, a single notice applicable to the collective work as a whole is sufficient to invoke the provisions of section 401(d) or 402(d), as applicable with respect to the separate contributions it contains (not including advertisements inserted on behalf of persons other than the owner of copyright in the collective work), regardless of the ownership of copyright in the contributions and whether or not they have been previously published.
+
+(b) With respect to copies and phonorecords publicly distributed by authority of the copyright owner before the effective date of the Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988, where the person named in a single notice applicable to a collective work as a whole is not the owner of copyright in a separate contribution that does not bear its own notice, the case is governed by the provisions of section 406(a).
+
+(Pub. L. 94–553, title I, § 101, Oct. 19, 1976, 90 Stat. 2577; Pub. L. 100–568, § 7(d), Oct. 31, 1988, 102 Stat. 2858.)
+
+## Notes
+
+Historical and Revision Notes
+
+house report no. 94–1476In conjunction with the provisions of section 201(c), section 404 deals with a troublesome problem under the present law: the notice requirements applicable to contributions published in periodicals and other collective works. The basic approach of the section is threefold: (1) To permit but not require a separate contribution to bear its own notice; (2) To make a single notice, covering the collective work as a whole, sufficient to satisfy the notice requirement for the separate contributions it contains, even if they have been previously published or their ownership is different; and (3) To protect the interests of an innocent infringer of copyright in a contribution that does not bear its own notice, who has dealt in good faith with the person named in the notice covering the collective work as a whole. As a general rule, under this section, the rights in an individual contribution to a collective work would not be affected by the lack of a separate copyright notice, as long as the collective work as a whole bears a notice. One exception to this rule would apply to “advertisements inserted on behalf of persons other than the owner of copyright in the collective work.” Collective works, notably newspapers and magazines, are major advertising media, and it is common for the same advertisement to be published in a number of different periodicals. The general copyright notice in a particular issue would not ordinarily protect the advertisements inserted in it, and relatively little advertising matter today is published with a separate copyright notice. The exception in section 404(a), under which separate notices would be required for most advertisements published in collective works, would impose no undue burdens on copyright owners and is justified by the special circumstances. Under section 404(b) a separate contribution that does not bear its own notice, and that is published in a collective work with a general notice containing the name of someone other than the copyright owner of the contribution, is treated as if it has been published with the wrong name in the notice. The case is governed by section 406(a), which means that an innocent infringer who in good faith took a license from the person named in the general notice would be shielded from liability to some extent.
+
+Editorial Notes
+
+References in TextThe effective date of the Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988, referred to in subsec. (b), is Mar. 1, 1989, see section 13 of Pub. L. 100–568, set out as an Effective Date of 1988 Amendment note under section 101 of this title.
+
+Amendments1988—Subsec. (a). Pub. L. 100–568, § 7(d)(1), substituted “to invoke the provisions of section 401(d) or 402(d), as applicable” for “to satisfy the requirements of sections 401 through 403”. Subsec. (b). Pub. L. 100–568, § 7(d)(2), substituted “With respect to copies and phonorecords publicly distributed by authority of the copyright owner before the effective date of the Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988, where” for “Where”.
+
+Statutory Notes and Related Subsidiaries
+
+Effective Date of 1988 AmendmentAmendment by Pub. L. 100–568 effective Mar. 1, 1989, with any cause of action arising under this title before such date being governed by provisions in effect when cause of action arose, see section 13 of Pub. L. 100–568, set out as a note under section 101 of this title.

legal/us/code/title-17/chapter-4/section-406.md

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+---
+type: "LegalText"
+title: "17 U.S.C. § 406"
+description: "Notice of copyright: Error in name or date on certain copies and phonorecords"
+jurisdiction: "us"
+corpus: "united_states_code"
+kind: "code_section"
+title_number: 17
+title_name: "COPYRIGHTS"
+chapter_number: "4"
+chapter_name: "COPYRIGHT NOTICE, DEPOSIT, AND REGISTRATION"
+section: "406"
+citation: "17 U.S.C. § 406"
+status: "current"
+release_point: "119-100"
+release_date: "2026-06-26"
+source: "official"
+source_url: "https://uscode.house.gov/download/releasepoints/us/pl/119/100/xml_usc17@119-100.zip"
+source_identifier: "/us/usc/t17/s406"
+source_file: "data/legal/raw/us/code/title-17/usc17.xml"
+source_hash: "cbfea572579aff7e2a224c8488c004a4234e1da1c9d1cbecbf94cc5a08a14e5d"
+raw_snapshot_hash: "53c244d73050c7c92329dce6d1ccd78b9e2fece359d919b044b600b95258446c"
+text_hash: "ef333358fd1c7b5306748212a90fec7206156784b101070c01641c8e67f0812c"
+retrieved_at: "2026-07-04"
+confidence: "official"
+tags: ["legal", "us-code"]
+---
+
+# 17 U.S.C. § 406 - Notice of copyright: Error in name or date on certain copies and phonorecords
+
+## Text
+
+(a) Error in Name.— With respect to copies and phonorecords publicly distributed by authority of the copyright owner before the effective date of the Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988, where the person named in the copyright notice on copies or phonorecords publicly distributed by authority of the copyright owner is not the owner of copyright, the validity and ownership of the copyright are not affected. In such a case, however, any person who innocently begins an undertaking that infringes the copyright has a complete defense to any action for such infringement if such person proves that he or she was misled by the notice and began the undertaking in good faith under a purported transfer or license from the person named therein, unless before the undertaking was begun—
+
+(1) registration for the work had been made in the name of the owner of copyright; or
+
+(2) a document executed by the person named in the notice and showing the ownership of the copyright had been recorded.
+
+The person named in the notice is liable to account to the copyright owner for all receipts from transfers or licenses purportedly made under the copyright by the person named in the notice.
+
+(b) Error in Date.— When the year date in the notice on copies or phonorecords distributed before the effective date of the Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 by authority of the copyright owner is earlier than the year in which publication first occurred, any period computed from the year of first publication under section 302 is to be computed from the year in the notice. Where the year date is more than one year later than the year in which publication first occurred, the work is considered to have been published without any notice and is governed by the provisions of section 405.
+
+(c) Omission of Name or Date.— Where copies or phonorecords publicly distributed before the effective date of the Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988 by authority of the copyright owner contain no name or no date that could reasonably be considered a part of the notice, the work is considered to have been published without any notice and is governed by the provisions of section 405 as in effect on the day before the effective date of the Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988.
+
+(Pub. L. 94–553, title I, § 101, Oct. 19, 1976, 90 Stat. 2578; Pub. L. 100–568, § 7(f), Oct. 31, 1988, 102 Stat. 2858.)
+
+## Notes
+
+Historical and Revision Notes
+
+house report no. 94–1476In addition to cases where notice has been omitted entirely, it is common under the present law for a copyright notice to be fatally defective because the name or date has been omitted or wrongly stated. Section 406 is intended to avoid technical forfeitures in these cases, while at the same time inducing use of the correct name and date and protecting users who rely on erroneous information. Error in Name. Section 406(a) begins with a statement that the use of the wrong name in the notice will not affect the validity or ownership of the copyright, and then deals with situations where someone acting innocently and in good faith infringes a copyright by relying on a purported transfer or license from the person erroneously named in the notice. In such a case the innocent infringer is given a complete defense unless a search of the Copyright Office records would have shown that the owner was someone other than the person named in the notice. Use of the wrong name in the notice is no defense if, at the time infringement was begun, registration had been made in the name of the true owner, or if “a document executed by the person named in the notice and showing the ownership of the copyright had been recorded.” The situation dealt with in section 406(a) presupposes a contractual relation between the copyright owner and the person named in the notice. The copies or phonorecords bearing the defective notice have been “distributed by authority of the copyright owner” and, unless the publication can be considered unauthorized because of breach of an express condition in the contract or other reasons, the owner must be presumed to have acquiesced in the use of the wrong name. If the person named in the notice grants a license for use of the work in good faith or under a misapprehension, that person should not be liable as a copyright infringer, but the last sentence of section 406(a) would make the person named in the notice liable to account to the copyright owner for “all receipts, from transfers or licenses purportedly made under the copyright” by that person. Error in Date. The familiar problems of antedated and postdated notices are dealt with in subsection (b) of section 406. In the case of an antedated notice, where the year in the notice is earlier than the year of first publication, the bill adopts the established judicial principle that any statutory term measured from the year of publication will be computed from the year given in the notice. This provision would apply not only to the copyright terms of anonymous works, pseudonymous works, and works made for hire under section 302(c), but also to the presumptive periods set forth in section 302(e). As for postdated notices, subsection (b) provides that, where the year in the notice is more than one year later than the year of first publication the case is treated as if the notice had been omitted and is governed by section 405. Notices postdated by one year are quite common on works published near the end of a year, and it would be unnecessarily strict to equate cases of that sort with works published without notice of any sort. Omission of Name or Date. Section 406(c) provides that, if the copies or phonorecords “contain no name or no date that could reasonably be considered a part of the notice,” the result is the same as if the notice had been omitted entirely, and section 405 controls. Unlike the present law, the bill contains no provision requiring the elements of the copyright notice to “accompany” each other, and under section 406(c) a name or date that could reasonably be read with the other elements may satisfy the requirements even if somewhat separated from them. Direct contiguity or juxtaposition of the elements is no longer necessary; but if the elements are too widely separated for their relation to be apparent, or if uncertainty is created by the presence of other names or dates, the case would have to be treated as if the name or date, and hence the notice itself had been omitted altogether.
+
+Editorial Notes
+
+References in TextThe effective date of the Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988, referred to in text, is Mar. 1, 1989, see section 13 of Pub. L. 100–568, set out as an Effective Date of 1988 Amendment note under section 101 of this title.
+
+Amendments1988—Pub. L. 100–568, § 7(f)(4), substituted “date on certain copies and phonorecords” for “date” in section catchline. Subsec. (a). Pub. L. 100–568, § 7(f)(1), substituted “With respect to copies and phonorecords publicly distributed by authority of the copyright owner before the effective date of the Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988, where” for “Where”. Subsec. (b). Pub. L. 100–568, § 7(f)(2), inserted “before the effective date of the Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988” after “distributed”. Subsec. (c). Pub. L. 100–568, § 7(f)(3), inserted “before the effective date of the Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988” after “publicly distributed” and “as in effect on the day before the effective date of the Berne Convention Implementation Act of 1988” after “section 405”.
+
+Statutory Notes and Related Subsidiaries
+
+Effective Date of 1988 AmendmentAmendment by Pub. L. 100–568 effective Mar. 1, 1989, with any cause of action arising under this title before such date being governed by provisions in effect when cause of action arose, see section 13 of Pub. L. 100–568, set out as a note under section 101 of this title.

legal/us/code/title-17/chapter-4/section-409.md

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+---
+type: "LegalText"
+title: "17 U.S.C. § 409"
+description: "Application for copyright registration"
+jurisdiction: "us"
+corpus: "united_states_code"
+kind: "code_section"
+title_number: 17
+title_name: "COPYRIGHTS"
+chapter_number: "4"
+chapter_name: "COPYRIGHT NOTICE, DEPOSIT, AND REGISTRATION"
+section: "409"
+citation: "17 U.S.C. § 409"
+status: "current"
+release_point: "119-100"
+release_date: "2026-06-26"
+source: "official"
+source_url: "https://uscode.house.gov/download/releasepoints/us/pl/119/100/xml_usc17@119-100.zip"
+source_identifier: "/us/usc/t17/s409"
+source_file: "data/legal/raw/us/code/title-17/usc17.xml"
+source_hash: "7b96b8ad99d94545e28a2a75948e43b3253c731556595045219cc9bbaf19c083"
+raw_snapshot_hash: "53c244d73050c7c92329dce6d1ccd78b9e2fece359d919b044b600b95258446c"
+text_hash: "a223d501b0c4663db83fe0a034a674de87a2f046470ede749fdc4100cb089cc5"
+retrieved_at: "2026-07-04"
+confidence: "official"
+tags: ["legal", "us-code"]
+---
+
+# 17 U.S.C. § 409 - Application for copyright registration
+
+## Text
+
+The application for copyright registration shall be made on a form prescribed by the Register of Copyrights and shall include—
+
+(1) the name and address of the copyright claimant;
+
+(2) in the case of a work other than an anonymous or pseudonymous work, the name and nationality or domicile of the author or authors, and, if one or more of the authors is dead, the dates of their deaths;
+
+(3) if the work is anonymous or pseudonymous, the nationality or domicile of the author or authors;
+
+(4) in the case of a work made for hire, a statement to this effect;
+
+(5) if the copyright claimant is not the author, a brief statement of how the claimant obtained ownership of the copyright;
+
+(6) the title of the work, together with any previous or alternative titles under which the work can be identified;
+
+(7) the year in which creation of the work was completed;
+
+(8) if the work has been published, the date and nation of its first publication;
+
+(9) in the case of a compilation or derivative work, an identification of any preexisting work or works that it is based on or incorporates, and a brief, general statement of the additional material covered by the copyright claim being registered; and
+
+(10) any other information regarded by the Register of Copyrights as bearing upon the preparation or identification of the work or the existence, ownership, or duration of the copyright.
+
+If an application is submitted for the renewed and extended term provided for in section 304(a)(3)(A) and an original term registration has not been made, the Register may request information with respect to the existence, ownership, or duration of the copyright for the original term.
+
+(Pub. L. 94–553, title I, § 101, Oct. 19, 1976, 90 Stat. 2582; Pub. L. 102–307, title I, § 102(b)(1), June 26, 1992, 106 Stat. 266; Pub. L. 111–295, § 4(b)(2), Dec. 9, 2010, 124 Stat. 3180.)
+
+## Notes
+
+Historical and Revision Notes
+
+house report no. 94–1476The various clauses of section 409, which specify the information to be included in an application for copyright registration, are intended to give the Register of Copyrights authority to elicit all of the information needed to examine the application and to make a meaningful record of registration. The list of enumerated items was not exhaustive; under the last clause of the section the application may also include “any other information regarded by the Register of Copyrights as bearing upon the preparation or identification of the work or the existence, ownership, or duration of the copyright.” Among the enumerated items there are several that are not now included in the Copyright Office’s application forms, but will become significant under the life-plus-50 term and other provisions of the bill. Clause (5), reflecting the increased importance of the interrelationship between registration of copyright claims and recordation of transfers of ownership, requires a statement of how a claimant who is not the author acquired ownership of the copyright. Clause (9) requires that, “in the case of a compilation or derivative work” the application include “an identification of any preexisting work or works that it is based on or incorporates, and a brief, general statement of the additional material covered by the copyright claim being registered.” It is intended that, under this requirement, the application covering a collection such as a song-book or hymnal would clearly reveal any works in the collection that are in the public domain, and the copyright status of all other previously-published compositions. This information will be readily available in the Copyright Office. The catch-all clause at the end of the section will enable the Register to obtain more specialized information, such as that bearing on whether the work contains material that is a “work of the United States Government.” In the case of works subject to the manufacturing requirement, the application must also include information about the manufacture of the copies.
+
+Editorial Notes
+
+Amendments2010—Par. (9) to (11). Pub. L. 111–295 inserted “and” after semicolon at end of par. (9), redesignated par. (11) as (10), and struck out former par. (10) which read as follows: “in the case of a published work containing material of which copies are required by section 601 to be manufactured in the United States, the names of the persons or organizations who performed the processes specified by subsection (c) of section 601 with respect to that material, and the places where those processes were performed; and”. 1992—Pub. L. 102–307 inserted at end “If an application is submitted for the renewed and extended term provided for in section 304(a)(3)(A) and an original term registration has not been made, the Register may request information with respect to the existence, ownership, or duration of the copyright for the original term.”
+
+Statutory Notes and Related Subsidiaries
+
+Effective Date of 1992 AmendmentAmendment by Pub. L. 102–307 effective June 26, 1992, but applicable only to copyrights secured between January 1, 1964, and December 31, 1977, and not affecting court proceedings pending on June 26, 1992, with copyrights secured before January 1, 1964, governed by section 304(a) of this title as in effect on the day before June 26, 1992, except each reference to forty-seven years in such provisions deemed to be 67 years, see section 102(g) of Pub. L. 102–307, as amended, set out as a note under section 101 of this title.

legal/us/code/title-17/chapter-4/section-410.md

@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+---
+type: "LegalText"
+title: "17 U.S.C. § 410"
+description: "Registration of claim and issuance of certificate"
+jurisdiction: "us"
+corpus: "united_states_code"
+kind: "code_section"
+title_number: 17
+title_name: "COPYRIGHTS"
+chapter_number: "4"
+chapter_name: "COPYRIGHT NOTICE, DEPOSIT, AND REGISTRATION"
+section: "410"
+citation: "17 U.S.C. § 410"
+status: "current"
+release_point: "119-100"
+release_date: "2026-06-26"
+source: "official"
+source_url: "https://uscode.house.gov/download/releasepoints/us/pl/119/100/xml_usc17@119-100.zip"
+source_identifier: "/us/usc/t17/s410"
+source_file: "data/legal/raw/us/code/title-17/usc17.xml"
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+text_hash: "ff3e72996e8e50fae9175f0af24a372c22a25a9abc71e0fbb2ca419e97e50d3a"
+retrieved_at: "2026-07-04"
+confidence: "official"
+tags: ["legal", "us-code"]
+---
+
+# 17 U.S.C. § 410 - Registration of claim and issuance of certificate
+
+## Text
+
+(a) When, after examination, the Register of Copyrights determines that, in accordance with the provisions of this title, the material deposited constitutes copyrightable subject matter and that the other legal and formal requirements of this title have been met, the Register shall register the claim and issue to the applicant a certificate of registration under the seal of the Copyright Office. The certificate shall contain the information given in the application, together with the number and effective date of the registration.
+
+(b) In any case in which the Register of Copyrights determines that, in accordance with the provisions of this title, the material deposited does not constitute copyrightable subject matter or that the claim is invalid for any other reason, the Register shall refuse registration and shall notify the applicant in writing of the reasons for such refusal.
+
+(c) In any judicial proceedings the certificate of a registration made before or within five years after first publication of the work shall constitute prima facie evidence of the validity of the copyright and of the facts stated in the certificate. The evidentiary weight to be accorded the certificate of a registration made thereafter shall be within the discretion of the court.
+
+(d) The effective date of a copyright registration is the day on which an application, deposit, and fee, which are later determined by the Register of Copyrights or by a court of competent jurisdiction to be acceptable for registration, have all been received in the Copyright Office.
+
+(Pub. L. 94–553, title I, § 101, Oct. 19, 1976, 90 Stat. 2582.)
+
+## Notes
+
+Historical and Revision Notes
+
+house report no. 94–1476The first two subsections of section 410 set forth the two basic duties of the Register of Copyrights with respect to copyright registration: (1) to register the claim and issue a certificate if the Register determines that “the material deposited constitutes copyrightable subject matter and that the other legal and formal requirements of this title have been met,” and (2) to refuse registration and notify the applicant if the Register determines that “the material deposited does not constitute copyrightable subject matter or that the claim is invalid for any other reason.” Subsection (c) deals with the probative effect of a certificate of registration issued by the Register under subsection (a). Under its provisions, a certificate is required to be given prima facie weight in any judicial proceedings if the registration it covers was made “before or within five years after first publication of the work”; thereafter the court is given discretion to decide what evidentiary weight the certificate should be accorded. This five-year period is based on a recognition that the longer the lapse of time between publication and registration the less likely to be reliable are the facts stated in the certificate. Under section 410(c), a certificate is to “constitute prima facie evidence of the validity of the copyright and of the facts stated in the certificate.” The principle that a certificate represents prima facie evidence of copyright validity has been established in a long line of court decisions, and it is a sound one. It is true that, unlike a patent claim, a claim to copyright is not examined for basic validity before a certificate is issued. On the other hand, endowing a copyright claimant who has obtained a certificate with a rebuttable presumption of the validity of the copyright does not deprive the defendant in an infringement suit of any rights, it merely orders the burdens of proof. The plaintiff should not ordinarily be forced in the first instance to prove all of the multitude of facts that underline the validity of the copyright unless the defendant, by effectively challenging them, shifts the burden of doing so to the plaintiff. Section 410(d), which is in accord with the present practice of the Copyright Office, makes the effective date of registration the day when an application, deposit, and fee “which are later determined by the Register of Copyrights or by a court of competent jurisdiction to be acceptable for registration” have all been received. Where the three necessary elements are received at different times the date of receipt of the last of them is controlling, regardless of when the Copyright Office acts on the claim. The provision not only takes account of the inevitable timelag between receipt of the application and other material and the issuance of the certificate, but it also recognizes the possibility that a court might later find the Register wrong in refusing registration.
+
+Statutory Notes and Related Subsidiaries
+
+Registration of Claims to Copyrights and Recordation of Assignments of Copyrights and Other Instruments Under Predecessor ProvisionsPub. L. 94–553, title I, § 109, Oct. 19, 1976, 90 Stat. 2600, provided that: “The registration of claims to copyright for which the required deposit, application, and fee were received in the Copyright Office before January 1, 1978, and the recordation of assignments of copyright or other instruments received in the Copyright Office before January 1, 1978, shall be made in accordance with title 17 as it existed on December 31, 1977.”

legal/us/code/title-17/chapter-4/section-411.md

@@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
+---
+type: "LegalText"
+title: "17 U.S.C. § 411"
+description: "Registration and civil infringement actions"
+jurisdiction: "us"
+corpus: "united_states_code"
+kind: "code_section"
+title_number: 17
+title_name: "COPYRIGHTS"
+chapter_number: "4"
+chapter_name: "COPYRIGHT NOTICE, DEPOSIT, AND REGISTRATION"
+section: "411"
+citation: "17 U.S.C. § 411"
+status: "current"
+release_point: "119-100"
+release_date: "2026-06-26"
+source: "official"
+source_url: "https://uscode.house.gov/download/releasepoints/us/pl/119/100/xml_usc17@119-100.zip"
+source_identifier: "/us/usc/t17/s411"
+source_file: "data/legal/raw/us/code/title-17/usc17.xml"
+source_hash: "8819d61f6492ffd735d0f6ca168cee401b010bdfb69d08e7ec7a2443a1f2d96a"
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+text_hash: "16a5b4b8e31f42c063e0c282abc5b5a4635465e4b3ed86cd886dee23092a1e91"
+retrieved_at: "2026-07-04"
+confidence: "official"
+tags: ["legal", "us-code"]
+---
+
+# 17 U.S.C. § 411 - Registration and civil infringement actions
+
+## Text
+
+(a) Except for an action brought for a violation of the rights of the author under section 106A(a), and subject to the provisions of subsection (b),11 See References in Text note below. no civil action for infringement of the copyright in any United States work shall be instituted until preregistration or registration of the copyright claim has been made in accordance with this title. In any case, however, where the deposit, application, and fee required for registration have been delivered to the Copyright Office in proper form and registration has been refused, the applicant is entitled to institute a civil action for infringement if notice thereof, with a copy of the complaint, is served on the Register of Copyrights. The Register may, at his or her option, become a party to the action with respect to the issue of registrability of the copyright claim by entering an appearance within sixty days after such service, but the Register’s failure to become a party shall not deprive the court of jurisdiction to determine that issue.
+
+(b) (1) A certificate of registration satisfies the requirements of this section and section 412, regardless of whether the certificate contains any inaccurate information, unless—
+
+(A) the inaccurate information was included on the application for copyright registration with knowledge that it was inaccurate; and
+
+(B) the inaccuracy of the information, if known, would have caused the Register of Copyrights to refuse registration.
+
+(2) In any case in which inaccurate information described under paragraph (1) is alleged, the court shall request the Register of Copyrights to advise the court whether the inaccurate information, if known, would have caused the Register of Copyrights to refuse registration.
+
+(3) Nothing in this subsection shall affect any rights, obligations, or requirements of a person related to information contained in a registration certificate, except for the institution of and remedies in infringement actions under this section and section 412.
+
+(c) In the case of a work consisting of sounds, images, or both, the first fixation of which is made simultaneously with its transmission, the copyright owner may, either before or after such fixation takes place, institute an action for infringement under section 501, fully subject to the remedies provided by sections 502 through 505 and section 510, if, in accordance with requirements that the Register of Copyrights shall prescribe by regulation, the copyright owner—
+
+(1) serves notice upon the infringer, not less than 48 hours before such fixation, identifying the work and the specific time and source of its first transmission, and declaring an intention to secure copyright in the work; and
+
+(2) makes registration for the work, if required by subsection (a), within three months after its first transmission.
+
+(Pub. L. 94–553, title I, § 101, Oct. 19, 1976, 90 Stat. 2583; Pub. L. 100–568, § 9(b)(1), Oct. 31, 1988, 102 Stat. 2859; Pub. L. 101–650, title VI, § 606(c)(1), Dec. 1, 1990, 104 Stat. 5131; Pub. L. 105–80, § 6, Nov. 13, 1997, 111 Stat. 1532; Pub. L. 105–304, title I, § 102(d), Oct. 28, 1998, 112 Stat. 2863; Pub. L. 109–9, title I, § 104(b), Apr. 27, 2005, 119 Stat. 222; Pub. L. 110–403, title I, § 101(a), title II, § 209(a)(6), Oct. 13, 2008, 122 Stat. 4257, 4264.)
+
+## Notes
+
+Historical and Revision Notes
+
+house report no. 94–1476The first sentence of section 411(a) restates the present statutory requirement that registration must be made before a suit for copyright infringement is instituted. Under the bill, as under the law now in effect, a copyright owner who has not registered his claim can have a valid cause of action against someone who has infringed his copyright, but he cannot enforce his rights in the courts until he has made registration. The second and third sentences of section 411(a) would alter the present law as interpreted in Vacheron & Constantin-Le Coultre Watches, Inc. v. Benrus Watch Co., 260 F.2d 637 (2d Cir. 1958). That case requires an applicant, who has sought registration and has been refused, to bring an action against the Register of Copyrights to compel the issuance of a certificate, before suit can be brought against an infringer. Under section 411, a rejected claimant who has properly applied for registration may maintain an infringement suit if notice of it is served on the Register of Copyrights. The Register is authorized, though not required, to enter the suit within 60 days; the Register would be a party on the issue of registrability only, and a failure by the Register to join the action would “not deprive the court of jurisdiction to determine that issue.” Section 411(b) is intended to deal with the special situation presented by works that are being transmitted “live” at the same time they are being fixed in tangible form for the first time. Under certain circumstances, where the infringer has been given advance notice, an injunction could be obtained to prevent the unauthorized use of the material included in the “live” transmission.
+
+Editorial Notes
+
+References in TextSubsection (b), referred to in subsec. (a), was redesignated subsec. (c) of this section by Pub. L. 110–403, title I, § 101(a)(3), Oct. 13, 2008, 122 Stat. 4257.
+
+Amendments2008—Pub. L. 110–403, § 101(a)(1), inserted “civil” before “infringement” in section catchline. Subsec. (a). Pub. L. 110–403, § 101(a)(2), substituted “no civil action” for “no action” in first sentence and “a civil action” for “an action” in second sentence. Subsec. (b). Pub. L. 110–403, § 209(a)(6), which directed amendment of subsec. (b) by substituting “section 510” for “sections 509 and 510”, could not be executed because of prior amendment by Pub. L. 110–403, § 101(a)(3), (4). See below. Pub. L. 110–403, § 101(a)(5), added subsec. (b). Former subsec. (b) redesignated (c). Subsec. (c). Pub. L. 110–403, § 101(a)(4), substituted “505 and section” for “506 and sections 509 and” in introductory provisions. Pub. L. 110–403, § 101(a)(3), redesignated subsec. (b) as (c). 2005—Subsec. (a). Pub. L. 109–9 inserted “preregistration or” after “shall be instituted until”. 1998—Subsec. (a). Pub. L. 105–304, in first sentence, struck out “actions for infringement of copyright in Berne Convention works whose country of origin is not the United States and” after “Except for” and inserted “United States” after “copyright in any”. 1997—Subsec. (b)(1). Pub. L. 105–80 amended par. (1) generally. Prior to amendment, par. (1) read as follows: “serves notice upon the infringer, not less than ten or more than thirty days before such fixation, identifying the work and the specific time and source of its first transmission, and declaring an intention to secure copyright in the work; and”. 1990—Subsec. (a). Pub. L. 101–650 inserted “and an action brought for a violation of the rights of the author under section 106A(a)” after “United States”. 1988—Pub. L. 100–568, § 9(b)(1)(A), substituted “Registration and infringement actions” for “Registration as prerequisite to infringement suit” in section catchline. Subsec. (a). Pub. L. 100–568, § 9(b)(1)(B), substituted “Except for actions for infringement of copyright in Berne Convention works whose country of origin is not the United States, and subject” for “Subject”. Subsec. (b)(2). Pub. L. 100–568, § 9(b)(1)(C), substituted “work, if required by subsection (a),” for “work”.
+
+Statutory Notes and Related Subsidiaries
+
+Effective Date of 1990 AmendmentAmendment by Pub. L. 101–650 effective 6 months after Dec. 1, 1990, see section 610 of Pub. L. 101–650, set out as an Effective Date note under section 106A of this title.
+
+Effective Date of 1988 AmendmentAmendment by Pub. L. 100–568 effective Mar. 1, 1989, with any cause of action arising under this title before such date being governed by provisions in effect when cause of action arose, see section 13 of Pub. L. 100–568, set out as a note under section 101 of this title.

legal/us/code/title-17/chapter-4/section-412.md

@@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
+---
+type: "LegalText"
+title: "17 U.S.C. § 412"
+description: "Registration as prerequisite to certain remedies for infringement"
+jurisdiction: "us"
+corpus: "united_states_code"
+kind: "code_section"
+title_number: 17
+title_name: "COPYRIGHTS"
+chapter_number: "4"
+chapter_name: "COPYRIGHT NOTICE, DEPOSIT, AND REGISTRATION"
+section: "412"
+citation: "17 U.S.C. § 412"
+status: "current"
+release_point: "119-100"
+release_date: "2026-06-26"
+source: "official"
+source_url: "https://uscode.house.gov/download/releasepoints/us/pl/119/100/xml_usc17@119-100.zip"
+source_identifier: "/us/usc/t17/s412"
+source_file: "data/legal/raw/us/code/title-17/usc17.xml"
+source_hash: "e7027de07ac1dc2cc3898043b78daf8e2f36ad149e8f6ea305734bc6b7c4a8e5"
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+text_hash: "c9f056f0cdf4b4292fe0aa8b24117af95da83e985feacf26094ecc6db49ce18d"
+retrieved_at: "2026-07-04"
+confidence: "official"
+tags: ["legal", "us-code"]
+---
+
+# 17 U.S.C. § 412 - Registration as prerequisite to certain remedies for infringement
+
+## Text
+
+In any action under this title, other than an action brought for a violation of the rights of the author under section 106A(a), an action for infringement of the copyright of a work that has been preregistered under section 408(f) before the commencement of the infringement and that has an effective date of registration not later than the earlier of 3 months after the first publication of the work or 1 month after the copyright owner has learned of the infringement, or an action instituted under section 411(c), no award of statutory damages or of attorney’s fees, as provided by sections 504 and 505, shall be made for—
+
+(1) any infringement of copyright in an unpublished work commenced before the effective date of its registration; or
+
+(2) any infringement of copyright commenced after first publication of the work and before the effective date of its registration, unless such registration is made within three months after the first publication of the work.
+
+(Pub. L. 94–553, title I, § 101, Oct. 19, 1976, 90 Stat. 2583; Pub. L. 101–650, title VI, § 606(c)(2), Dec. 1, 1990, 104 Stat. 5131; Pub. L. 109–9, title I, § 104(c), Apr. 27, 2005, 119 Stat. 222; Pub. L. 110–403, title I, § 101(b)(1), Oct. 13, 2008, 122 Stat. 4258.)
+
+## Notes
+
+Historical and Revision Notes
+
+house report no. 94–1476The need for section 412 arises from two basic changes the bill will make in the present law. (1) Copyright registration for published works, which is useful and important to users and the public at large, would no longer be compulsory, and should therefore be induced in some practical way. (2) The great body of unpublished works now protected at common law would automatically be brought under copyright and given statutory protection. The remedies for infringement presently available at common law should continue to apply to these works under the statute, but they should not be given special statutory remedies unless the owner has, by registration, made a public record of his copyright claim. Under the general scheme of the bill, a copyright owner whose work has been infringed before registration would be entitled to the remedies ordinarily available in infringement cases: an injunction on terms the court considers fair, and his actual damages plus any applicable profits not used as a measure of damages. However, section 412 would deny any award of the special or “extraordinary” remedies of statutory damages or attorney’s fees where infringement of copyright in an unpublished work began before registration or where, in the case of a published work, infringement commenced after publication and before registration (unless registration has been made within a grace period of three months after publication). These provisions would be applicable to works of foreign and domestic origin alike. In providing that statutory damages and attorney’s fees are not recoverable for infringement of unpublished, unregistered works, clause (1) of section 412 in no way narrows the remedies available under the present law. With respect to published works, clause (2) would generally deny an award of those two special remedies where infringement takes place before registration. As an exception, however, the clause provides a grace period of three months after publication during which registration can be made without loss of remedies; full remedies could be recovered for any infringement begun during the three months after publication if registration is made before that period has ended. This exception is needed to take care of newsworthy or suddenly popular works which may be infringed almost as soon as they are published, before the copyright owner has had a reasonable opportunity to register his claim.
+
+Editorial Notes
+
+Amendments2008—Pub. L. 110–403 substituted “section 411(c)” for “section 411(b)” in introductory provisions. 2005—Pub. L. 109–9 inserted “, an action for infringement of the copyright of a work that has been preregistered under section 408(f) before the commencement of the infringement and that has an effective date of registration not later than the earlier of 3 months after the first publication of the work or 1 month after the copyright owner has learned of the infringement,” after “section 106A(a)” in introductory provisions. 1990—Pub. L. 101–650 inserted “an action brought for a violation of the rights of the author under section 106A(a) or” after “other than” in introductory provisions.
+
+Statutory Notes and Related Subsidiaries
+
+Effective Date of 1990 AmendmentAmendment by Pub. L. 101–650 effective 6 months after Dec. 1, 1990, see section 610 of Pub. L. 101–650, set out as an Effective Date note under section 106A of this title.